Marketing different moves in the world history of the market. Brief history of marketing development. History of marketing development in Russia
Today, marketing is talked about on every corner and it is impossible to believe that it once did not exist. But the fact is that the history of marketing began quite recently. Marketing is a very recent invention of mankind compared to the age of mankind itself. There was a time when goods were in such short supply that they sold like hot cakes without any marketing and it was simply unnecessary.
For some time, this situation was also observed in the countries of the former USSR after the collapse of this country, and these were golden times for some of its inhabitants. In an era when there was no marketing, then even the economy as such could not be said. The instruments of motivation were slavery and coercion. But then the economy arose as a system of mutual assistance, and after a while the history of marketing began.
If we talk about age, then marketing is no more than 150 years old, if we take its individual elements. If we talk about marketing as a system, then in this case it is not even 100 years old. Initially, there was no marketing as a system. There were only individual elements that were used on their own, and only relatively recently did marketing appear as a system
The history of marketing
The first time, in its first version, marketing appeared when the economy as such in its modern sense arose. It was in the modern classification of marketing 1.0. Before that, it was simply not needed. The economy did not develop very quickly, there were not enough goods, but everyone needed them. Accordingly, the main competitive advantage of that time was the ability to produce.
The main thing in marketing 1.0 was to have a product
For this reason, this era was called the industrial era. The industry was flourishing then. The main thing in marketing 1.0 was to have a product. All efforts were directed to getting hold of the product and this was the essence of marketing 1.0. Whoever had the goods, he was the master of the situation. Whoever had the goods was the king. Everyone wanted to get rich, so they invented different ways to get the goods.
In other words, in order to get rich in a shortage of goods, marketing 1.0 was invented. Sometimes there were relapses. For example, similar conditions, created artificially, were in the late 80s of the last century in the USSR. Then there was a terrible shortage of goods in the country and the price was those people and companies who could "get" the goods and helped them in this marketing 1.0, although it was believed that the USSR had a planned economy.
History of Marketing 1.0
However, let's return to the developed countries, which, due to the fact that they are far ahead of other countries, always needed marketing in the new version earlier than others. The main history of marketing takes place just the same in these countries, in which, already at the beginning of the 20th century, a surplus of goods began to be felt in some markets, i.e. their excess.
All those who used Marketing 1.0 started to lose positions because they started to lose windfall profits.
With a surplus of goods, consumers have a choice. They could apply to any of the companies, now it was they who made the choice and they became masters of the situation. People or companies that were well versed in marketing 1.0 began to lose ground. All those who used Marketing 1.0 began to lose positions because they began to lose the super profits that this version of marketing gave them before.
There were a lot of competitors and there was no time for excess profits, it was necessary to at least sell the goods, otherwise it was possible to go into the red altogether, because there were a lot of goods and they were constantly updated. It is clear that any consumer preferred a newer and more valuable product, and if so, then old goods had to be disposed of as quickly as possible.
The History of Marketing 2.0
The surplus of consumers led to the fact that we had to invent new marketing, marketing 2.0 . This marketing was based on needs and needs, because it turned out that the product that was able to satisfy them better than others turned out to be the most competitive, it was given consumer priority. However, the problem is that it is possible to satisfy the needs and requirements, but only if the product is tailored to the consumers, to their needs and requirements.
This meant that the history of marketing development in version 2.0 was coming to an end.
To do this, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the consumer in the production of goods. There are quite a lot of them: gender, age, social status, education, income, and the like. The more the product resembles the consumer, the more the product corresponds to its characteristics, the better it satisfies the needs and requirements, the more valuable it looks in the eyes of consumers.
A product that had more value for the consumer and was chosen by the consumer. The consumer was already buying not just a product, but the most valuable product for him. In the middle of the 20th century, it became obvious that many goods turned out to be 100% tailored to the characteristics of the consumer. This meant that the history of marketing development in version 2.0 was coming to an end. Gaining a competitive advantage through marketing 2.0 has become difficult and selling products through this technology has become more difficult.
It's time to move to Marketing 3.0. As a result, various concepts of marketing and something similar to them began to appear. For example, lateral marketing appeared, nanomarketing appeared, the blue ocean strategy appeared, and much more. However, the principles of all this were basically the same as classical marketing - needs and requirements.
Marketing guru Philip Kotler based the new version of marketing on the soul of a person
In other words, the move to true Marketing 3.0 has not happened for a long time. Any new concepts related to marketing remained the same marketing 1.0 or 2.0, just viewed from a different angle. This means that they did not give anything fundamentally new. They allowed to bypass competitors in some individual parameters, but not in general and not for long.
The work was continued and the new principles of marketing, more precisely, the new basic elements of marketing were still defined. Marketing guru Philip Kotler based the new version of marketing on the soul of a person. A lesser-known marketing specialist, Pavel Bernovich, based Marketing 3.0 on the idea as one of the varieties of elements of our world.
With the development of noomarketing, a new history of marketing began. As Pavel Bernovich showed in reality, the soul of a person is the idea of this very person, which means soulful marketing Philip Kotler Basically, it also has an idea. Working with the soul of a person, as Philip Kotler sees marketing 3.0, is actually working with the idea of a person, which consists in constantly modernizing the idea of a person, making it more developed.
So, real marketing 3.0 is finally invented and it is called noomarketing.
In other words, Pavel Bernovich, despite his lesser fame, most accurately defined the base that formed the basis of Marketing 3.0. On this basis, marketing articles are written, presented on this site. So, real marketing 3.0 has finally been invented and it is called noomarketing. The essence of noomarketing is to determine the basic idea of a person and develop it as much as possible through integration with other ideas.
The basic idea is like the smallest matryoshka, which grows with bigger and bigger nesting dolls. At the same time, the more “matryoshkas” a person has increased, the more “advanced” he is. Relatively speaking, some people increase their idea to 5 nesting dolls, some to 10, and some to 100 or more. A person becomes advanced because each new idea introduced to him gives him new opportunities.
The history of marketing is just beginning
Accordingly, the more ideas a person introduces into himself, the more opportunities he has compared to others. In this regard, building up the idea can be called another word - the modernization of the idea, and hence the person. The main feature of the idea is that it is the idea that causes need and need, which means that noomarketing is a deeper level of marketing.
Noomarketing is intelligent marketing, marketing to work with the human mind
If a person is not saturated with new ideas, he will lag behind the world and become uninteresting to him. Accordingly, the work of a modern marketer is to keep a person from falling behind a world that is rapidly moving forward. A marketer must monitor, identify new ideas, come up with ways to integrate these ideas into a person and implement them in him. Only in this way will it help a person move at the same speed as the rest of the world moves.
It is for this special mission that noomarketing has been developed. This name is formed from two words. One of them is the well-known word marketing, and the second word is the word noos, which means mind in Greek. Noomarketing is intelligent marketing, marketing to work with the human mind. The mind of a person is his soul, this is his idea.
The term "marketing" comes from the English "marketing" - trade, sale, sale, which in turn is derived from "market" and means the market, and in a broader modern sense - market activity 9 . The analysis shows that marketing as an economic category has a very capacious content.
The history of the development of marketing abroad is divided into the following stages:
First step development of marketing was a kind of basis for marketing in its modern sense. It is worth noting that at that time there was still no science called marketing, but there were methods and principles of doing business, which we can rank among the fundamental foundations of marketing. The peculiarity of the first stage is its division into three successive periods:
1860-1920 against the general background of the excess of demand over supply, they are characterized by the improvement of production, the main purpose of which was to increase the volume of products;
1920-1930 are characterized by the fact that, taking into account the successes achieved in the field of growth in production volumes, manufacturers were forced to focus on improving their products by improving their quality and correspondingly changing the product range;
in 1930-1960 the organization of sales becomes a priority due to the intensification of commercial efforts, since this period was characterized by an excess of supply over demand. Therefore, more and more attention in marketing is paid to research and active modeling of consumer behavior in the market.
Second phase The development of marketing is characterized by a new qualitative turn in the 50-60s. XX century, when, having overcome post-war difficulties, economically developed countries entered a new stage of development. Marketing began to be seen as a process broader than intra-firm planning, and was called period of customer orientation.
All this led to the formation of the so-called consumer market A market characterized by an excess of supply over demand.
Cyrus McCormick (1809-1884) was the first to suggest that marketing should be the central activity of the enterprise, and working with one's own circle of consumers - the task of the manager, was Cyrus McCormick (1809-1884). He was the first to fully recognize the unique role of the marketing function as a specific management task.
Third stage The evolution of marketing has turned it into the doctrine of modern business, its philosophy, the main means of communication between the company and its environment, into a complex systemic activity.
It is also worth noting a rather interesting hypothesis expressed by an American scientist of Austrian origin, Peter Drucker. He believed that Japan was the birthplace of marketing. There is even documentary evidence that in 1690 Mr. Matsui opened the first department store in Tokyo. For the first time in the history of trade, the store owner focused on his customers, buying only what was in demand, providing a system of guarantees for the quality of the goods and constantly expanding the range of goods.
It is also worth noting the fact that the evolution of marketing fits into the evolution of the development of the management concept, which has gone through the following 10 stages:
1. Production era.
Until 1925, most companies, even those operating in the most developed countries of Western Europe and North America, focused mainly on manufacturing. Manufacturers focused on producing high quality products and then looked for people to sell them. During this period, the prevailing opinion was that a good product (having a high physical quality) would be able to sell itself. A manufacturing orientation has set the business philosophy for decades; indeed, the success of a business was often measured only in terms of production achievements. The era of production ended before it even reached its peak, and this happened already at the beginning of the 20th century.
Efficiently functioning enterprises increasingly use the so-called marketing concepts, marketing philosophy, marketing system, marketing thinking. Thus, the fundamental foundations of marketing are realized.
Translated from English the word " market" means market. Term "targeting" can be translated as "activity in the field of the market."
There are many scientific definitions of marketing, and their abundance is due to several reasons. One of them is the differences in the very approaches to marketing (Appendix 1). So, on the one hand, it is considered as a management concept (“way of thinking”), a kind of “philosophy” of entrepreneurship. This approach is based on the following basic principles: systematization in understanding the market and its elements; unconditional priority of the interests of the buyer; flexible adaptability to market requirements and active influence on it, etc.
Another common approach to marketing is to describe it as a "mode of action", i.e. as a system of practices and measures aimed at achieving success in the market.
In addition, marketing can be considered as a field of human knowledge, a science with a specific subject of research, an academic discipline, an area of economic activity, a specific function of an enterprise, etc.
The understanding of marketing has changed in the process of developing marketing activities. Usually it is implemented in such functions as market research and the study of customer behavior, the development of new products and the formation of the company's assortment policy, the development of pricing policy, the organization of a system for marketing and distribution of goods, the formation of a system marketing communications(first of all, we are talking about advertising), marketing management, etc.
The marketing theory used the achievements of many previous economic doctrines, including mercantilism (XVII century), according to which the well-being of the people is created not by production, but by foreign trade, due to which capital is accumulated within the country.
Actually the marketing theory arose in the USA in the second half of the 19th century; The economic crises of that time forced American scientists to talk about the “chronic problem of overproduction” and the discrepancy between the system of goods and services circulation that existed at that time and the increased demands for organizing the marketing of products.
The aggravation of the problem of sales took place against the backdrop of fundamental shifts in the market associated with the rapid development of monopolies. Under these conditions, much has changed in the sphere of circulation; the achieved scale of production allowed the monopolists to apply various methods of accounting for the capacity of the market, to carry out, within certain limits, its direct and indirect regulation.
Marketing as a theoretical concept was called upon to comprehend all these radical changes. But as soon as large firms got the opportunity to influence the market and the consumer to certain limits, to regulate the economic relations they enter into as suppliers of goods, a very specific task arose - to develop tools for such regulation.
The first marketing courses were opened in the 1901/02 academic year at the Universities of Illinois and Michigan in the USA. Although they were mostly descriptive in nature, they were nevertheless singled out as an independent academic discipline from general economic theory and practice. The courses contained a description and description of the main methods of marketing activities of enterprises, operations of wholesalers and retailers. Particular attention was paid to the issues of advertising, the specifics of the sale of goods in various directions.
The popularity of the marketing course grew, and soon it became an integral part of the training program for future businessmen. In 1908, the first commercial marketing research firm was founded. In 1911, the first specialized marketing departments appeared in the administrative apparatus of large companies. In the 20s. In the United States, the National Association of Marketing and Advertising Educators was created, which then became part of the American Marketing Association, formed in 1937.
A qualitatively new round in the development of marketing, according to experts, falls on the 60-80s. This is due to the transition of economically developed countries from the industrial to the post-industrial period. The latter is characterized by the fact that production ceases to be mass, large-scale, and is increasingly focused on the individualized needs of consumers, markets are becoming more and more differentiated, the possibilities for reducing costs at enterprises are limited, the number of small enterprises is growing, the role of scientific and technical information is significantly increasing, etc.
Under these conditions, it became clear that the profit of the enterprise depends not only and not so much on cost reduction. own production, but to a large extent on how much attention is paid to researching the market and competitors, the quality of the product and organizing its successful promotion to the market.
Our knowledge of market activity should be based on the main provisions of modern marketing. As an integral system of activity of an enterprise (firm) in the market, it will have an increasing influence on the development of entrepreneurial philosophy and methodology.
Firstly, marketing creates a new way of thinking in the management of an enterprise (firm). It is formed as a system of thinking, i.e. a complex of mental attitudes aimed at the optimal adaptation of specific goals to the real possibilities of achieving them, at an active search for a systematic solution to emerging problems. This is an attempt to use available resources and the full potential of the enterprise (firm) is appropriate and subject to market requirements. The changes taking place in the way of thinking are clearly illustrated by the evolution of marketing concepts at various stages of its development.
Secondly, marketing also creates a new mode of operation of the enterprise in the market. A holistic methodology of the market activity of an enterprise (firm) is being formed, revealing its principles, methods, means, functions and organization. A product promotion system is being formed and developed, which uses a rich set of different techniques: improving the functions of the product, influencing the consumer, flexible pricing policy, advertising, efficiency of distribution channels, etc.
Currently, the marketing course is taught in almost all higher educational institutions of the countries with market economy. It is mandatory at universities, institutes, various kinds of business schools, etc., where marketing specialists are trained for many areas entrepreneurial activity.
An active role in the promotion of marketing ideas is played by national and international associations, including Europoly, such as Uxson, Standard Oil, Siemens, General Electric, United Fruits, which share the world's
markets for factors of production, as well as markets for sales.
The process of concentration and centralization of industrial capital coincided with the strengthening of the role of banking capital in retail and wholesale trade. In large cities, many department stores, trade and parcel enterprises, trusts and firms uniting entrepreneurs appeared. The penetration of big capital into the sphere of marketing of goods is explained by the need to compete successfully with small retailers. In this struggle, a new tool appears - marketing. It is he who makes it possible to answer questions related to market analysis and forecasting.
In the XX century. marketing has gone through several stages in its development. Initially (until the 50s), the concept of marketing was built with an emphasis on products - grocery concept. This meant that all attention was concentrated only on the production of high quality goods, which were sold at relatively moderate prices. In this case, consumers independently made their choice among numerous analogues.
production concept, which replaced the grocery one, prioritized the availability of goods (products) for a wide range of consumers. It was based on two factors:
Efficiency of production of goods;
the efficiency of the distribution system.
In the 50-70s. arose the concept of active promotion of goods on the market. In order for consumers to buy goods in sufficient quantities, it was necessary to take additional measures (in other words, "to impose a purchase"), which included advertising, personal price discounts, artificial obsolescence incentives for previously sold goods, etc. This concept was no longer clearly focused on meeting the actual needs of customers, it became a secondary point.
The transition to a new concept of marketing was not accidental, * because it fully contributed to the solution of the following tasks facing firms:
Ø development of goods that meet market demands;
Ш production of goods, taking into account the latest achievements of science and technology;
Ш optimal system of goods distribution;
W complex of services in the sale of goods and after-sales service.
The reorientation of firms to a new marketing concept is due to a number of reasons:
v an increase in the degree of risk (commercial, market) in the development of a new product model, its production and consumption, i.e. at all stages of the creation and movement of goods;
v expanding the range of goods, which required taking into account the needs of various categories of consumers, as well as factors such as climatic zones, ethnic traditions and habits, etc.;
v simultaneous entry into the market of many firms - producers of homogeneous goods, which gave rise to an aggravation of competition;
v increasing the pace of socio-economic and scientific and technological progress;
v the emergence of unforeseen situations in the markets that can lead the company to collapse.
In these conditions, a system was needed that combines approaches to research, development and sale of goods. Such a system in the 70-80-ies. marketing has become, orienting the company to success in the outside world, where it is necessary to reckon with three main factors: consumers, competitors and the external environment (legal, fiscal and tax systems).
So, the next stage in the development of marketing activities is characterized by the adoption of the concept of management, i.e. determining the interests of consumers and real assessments or assortment, quality and other parameters of products. Production is now tied more closely to identified customer needs. Companies constantly monitor public opinion, which evaluates their work to meet consumer needs and has a certain impact on it.
At this stage, the importance of marketing can hardly be overestimated, since the tendency to quickly update the range of products has intensified. The main problem of the market was the presence of a huge number of substitute products. In order to gain certain advantages over competitors, the company needs to prove to the buyer every time its desire for constant concern for its interests (or create the appearance of this).
Only the image of a company that keeps pace with the times and uses the latest achievements of science and technology, allows you to get high profits. As a result, entrepreneurs strive to put on the market as many products as possible, which, as a rule, differ from each other only by minor design modifications or have an updated design. Naturally, this enhances the role of marketing, especially its component - advertising, since it is necessary to convince the consumer of the actual changes in the product for the better and do everything possible to ensure that he refuses to use previously purchased products as "obsolete", having "technical shortcomings" or "out of fashion."
The appearance of new products on the market creates a certain inconvenience for a number of companies that have already seized leadership in this area and causes the need to protect themselves from competitors. The development and introduction of a new, commercially viable product is a rather troublesome, long and very capital-intensive business, so that even the largest corporations cannot produce and offer completely new products to consumers too often. This is where marketing can come in handy, which will emphasize the enduring values of traditional products.
Other important circumstances that increase the role of marketing in the economic life of firms are the changing nature of the market, as well as its oversaturation with high-quality and diverse goods. Under these conditions, mass production loses its advantages - lower cost and price of the final product. Yes, in the early 1970s. in many branches of Japanese industry, the upper limit of labor productivity was reached. At present, the share of mass production in total industrial production is only 25-30%. As a result, a transition is being made to a fundamentally different concept of the production process - work to order.
According to a senior consultant at the Japanese Sharp Corporation, today's consumers, among other things, want to buy products that allow them to express their individuality. This production concept, of course, involves an active search for the consumer and the identification of his requests, which could subsequently be satisfied as a result of using the latest advances in technology (flexible production systems, powerful computer technology, etc.).
Marketing was required by manufacturers of goods and as a kind of business philosophy, based on strict social and ethical feeds:
l honesty and respect for the opinions and requirements of consumers;
l decency of the company in relation to the consumer in case of claims;
l sequence in actions;
a high level of professionalism in their field.
Marketing as an economic phenomenon is characterized by two indicators:
b consistency, those. a systematic approach to technological and commercial processes - any object and subject of management in marketing are considered as elements of a large system;
b complexity, those. the ability to take into account all aspects and components of not only the marketing process, but also the conditions for its functioning.
With the fiercest competition, the market loses its randomness to a certain extent. The "invisible hand of the market" (A. Smith) regulates the operation of pre-established economic ties. In this case, a phenomenon called "consumer-king" arises. The competition for the consumer is intensifying, which forces marketers to deeply study specific potential consumers and market demands.
The global economy is characterized by increasing processes of internationalization of the entire economic life. Companies in order to obtain stable income, as well as maintaining a competitive position, they have to go beyond national markets, which requires them to carry out large-scale work to clarify local characteristics, cultural and other traditions that are reflected in the products (its properties and appearance). Any attempt to ignore this aspect of marketing can result in the company's commercial failure. For these reasons, the importance of marketing is growing.
In foreign markets, manufacturing firms cannot be limited to the simple sale of goods, their constant presence in the region where they sell products is necessary. This is especially important for those firms that produce industrial products or durable consumer goods. The success of the company is directly related to the creation of a customer service system that is able to satisfy the needs of customers in the services related to the operation of products in the shortest possible time. Only high quality service is the key to future development.
“Alien firms”, which are increasingly invading national markets, are included in competitive rivalry with national firms. In view of this, a clear understanding of what after-sales services should traditionally be provided to the public or industrial consumers is required. In such a situation, preliminary research and study of the organization of service have become essential. Naturally, all this is impossible without the use of marketing activities.
The value of marketing in the world economy is largely associated with the current stage of the scientific and technological revolution. manufacturing process as well final product are complicated to such an extent that the consumer is not able to distinguish the efforts of the company aimed at improving the quality of the product. For this reason, many companies have switched from the practice of further improving the quality of the product itself to improving the quality of customer service, which is associated with the implementation of a particular product, which is reflected in the priorities of the market strategy of firms.
A survey of executives of the largest American companies showed that they consider the improvement of the quality of customer service to be the main link in achieving success. The second condition for achieving success, but with a significant lag, was the improvement in the quality of goods and labor productivity.
It is curious that in the early 60s. customer service as one of the elements of market competition policy was put by entrepreneurs in its importance only in fifth place, i.e. it was inferior to such elements as product development, sales planning, business management sales staff and advertising. However, already in the early 70s. The relative importance of the elements of the product concept in conquering markets was distributed as follows: in the first place were technical innovations, in the second - services, and in the third - customer service.
However, there came a time when the degree of improvement of the product reached the point beyond which consumers could not recognize real changes. This circumstance demanded from firms a sharp increase in efforts in the direction of advertising. Only advertising can show the consumer the degree of modernization of products and convince him of the superiority of one product over another.
In the modern market, the consumer is offered a huge number of twin products at various prices. The company's profit largely depends not only on the ability to offer a lower price, but also on the characteristics of the goods sold, on the formed consumer preferences. It is the propensity of buyers to buy only the goods of certain firms that helps to divide the aggregate market into many segments, in each of which one or another firm can become a monopolist. Significant efforts are required to achieve a monopoly in the trade of a certain type of product and a sharp decrease in competitive rivalry, especially in promotional activities aimed at establishing a firm and related trademarks or trade names reputation in the market.
With the help of advertising, goods receive such an additional element of consumer properties of the product as prestige, fame. Companies that have carried out market segmentation research benefit. Their products are not subject to significant competitive pressure and are priced higher than others.
The policy of market segmentation also makes it possible, in conditions of mass production, to satisfy the needs of various categories of consumers without resorting to additional costs. Active advertising, a changed appearance, an original distribution system (regular and branded stores, salons) contribute to giving the same product a different value, and ultimately help to set different prices for different (according to their purchasing power) consumer groups and increase company profits .
Thus, we can conclude that within the framework of the world economy, the importance of marketing is great, since no firm can establish effective work in the market without using it.
Marketing is one of the foundational disciplines for market professionals such as retailers, advertisers, marketing researchers, new and branded product managers, and the like. The listed professional market players need to know:
- how to describe the market and break it into segments;
- how to assess the needs, requests and preferences of consumers within the target market;
- how to design and test a product with the consumer properties necessary for this market;
- how to convey to the consumer the idea of \u200b\u200bthe value of the product through the price;
- how to choose skillful intermediaries so that the product is widely available, well presented;
- how to advertise and sell a product so that consumers know it and want to buy it.
According to the founder of marketing theory, American scientist Philip Kotler, marketing is a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and requirements through the exchange .
The role of marketing in the economy is to increase its trade and operational efficiency. At the present stage, marketing is understood as an expression of a market-oriented managerial style of thinking that can not only respond to the development of the market environment, but also change the parameters itself. environment, providing market entry, market expansion, market security.
The history of the emergence and development of marketing. Four eras of marketing
Most scientists define marketing as a type of human activity that is aimed at meeting emerging needs and requirements through exchange. And although exchange relations arose almost simultaneously with the emergence of mankind, the formation of marketing as a separate science began to occur only after the "great depression" that reigned in the West in 1923-1933.
American scientist, economist Peter Drucker believed that Japan became the birthplace of marketing. In 1690, the founder of the famous Mitsui family settled in Tokyo and opened the first department store. In this store, Mr. Mitsui pursued a trade policy that was about 250 years ahead of its time. For the first time in the history of trade, the store owner focused on his customers, buying only what was in demand, providing a system of guarantees for the quality of the goods, constantly expanding the range of goods.
In the West, marketing has only been talked about since the middle of the nineteenth century. Cyrus McCormick was the first to suggest that marketing should be the central activity of the enterprise, and working with one's own circle of consumers should be the task of the manager, was Cyrus McCormick. This person is better known as the inventor of the first combine, but it was he who created such marketing directions as price policy , market research, after-sales service.
As an academic science, marketing originated in America. Marketing courses were first taught at the University of Illinois and Michigan in 1901. Therefore, the birthplace of modern marketing is considered to be the United States.
There are four main eras in the history of marketing. :
- era of production;
- era of sales;
- the era of direct marketing;
- era of relationships.
Production era lasted until 1925. At that time, even the most developed companies in Europe focused only on the production of quality goods, and they hired third-party people to sell them. It was believed that a good product is quite capable of selling itself.
The most prominent representative of the business of those years was Henry Ford, whose famous phrase: "Consumers can have the color of the car they want, as long as it remains black" perfectly describes the attitude to marketing of that time. Most industrialists believed that it was enough to produce the best product in order to outperform competitors. However, this was not entirely true, and the production era ended before it reached its peak.
Sales era (since 1925) - production methods were improved in Europe and the USA, production volumes grew. Manufacturers have already had to think about more efficient ways to market their products. It was a time of great discoveries, and goods that were completely unusual for consumers appeared on the market, the need for which the population still needed to be convinced. In large companies, sales specialists began to appear, but they were still given a secondary role.
The era of marketing itself started after the Great Depression. The need of the population for goods began to grow, the importance of sales departments too. Only those companies that were able to take into account consumer demand and focus on it survived. During the Second World War, there was a pause in the development of marketing relations.
After the war, marketing was no longer seen as an additional or secondary activity. Marketing began to play a leading role in product planning. Marketers, together with product engineers, identified consumer needs and tried to satisfy them. Market orientation helped to quickly achieve financial success, consumers were very willing to accept new products. This is how consumer-driven marketing was born.
Relationship Era appeared towards the end of the twentieth century and continues to this day. Its characteristic feature is the desire of marketers to establish and maintain stable relationships with consumers. The company strives to maintain permanent relationships with suppliers as well. Potential competitors create joint ventures, trademarks are combined in one common product. The main goal in the face of fierce competition is to maintain and increase sales, to stay afloat.
History of marketing development in Russia
Periodization of marketing development in Russia has significant differences . The first period of marketing development began in 1880 and lasted until October 1917. It was a time of active development of Russian industry on the basis of large-scale entrepreneurship. Even then, various marketing tools were used, in particular, the formation of public opinion through the issuance of printed and wall advertisements, participation in international exhibitions and fairs, patronage.
Domestic entrepreneurs have successfully used sales and staff promotion techniques. There was an industry for the production of packaging for goods. But united marketing system was not there yet. Whereas at large universities in Europe and America, marketing was already taught as a separate discipline, in Russia, individual knowledge of marketing could only be obtained in a general course. economic theory which was taught in commercial schools.
The revolution interrupted the development of marketing in Russia. Within five years, the country needed most of the industrial and food products. Production was stopped and destroyed. The Civil War and World War I relegated the problem of marketing far into the background.
With the advent of the NEP era, a new round of marketing development in Russia is taking place. The Market Institute appeared in Moscow, the first institution in Soviet Russia to study marketing. N.D. Kondratiev the theory of "Business Cycles" is created, the first scientific work on marketing. However, with the advent of 1929 and the rigid distribution system of goods, the development of marketing freezes again until the Khrushchev thaw.
Under Khrushchev, Soviet economists became interested in marketing, giving a negative assessment of marketing as a phenomenon completely alien to the economy of Soviet Russia.
In the 1970s, Russia began to enter the foreign market, and the ignorance of the simplest basics of marketing by domestic specialists led to the failure of trade relations. Realizing their mistake, the country's leadership in urgently rehabilitated marketing by introducing a new academic discipline in a number of universities in the country.
A new stage in the development of domestic marketing began in 1992-1993. The economic reforms of those years are estimated differently, but they led to the formation of market relations and spurred the development of marketing.
Many enterprises found themselves on the verge of bankruptcy and were forced to resort to marketing tools in order to establish sales against the backdrop of a rapidly changing economic situation in Russia. Some urgently re-profiled their activities, focusing on consumer demand, others closed, declaring bankruptcy.
Today, the importance of marketing in Russia is recognized by all those who are connected with the market and are engaged in economic activities. Marketing is taught as a separate discipline in colleges and universities. Marketing has become an independent specialty, marketing graduates are becoming sought-after specialists in any enterprise.
NON-STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT" ISBI "
Faculty of Distance Technologies
Course work
course: "Marketing"
Kazan - 2013
Introduction
Theoretical Foundations of Marketing
1 Essence of marketing
2 Goals, objectives and functions of marketing
History of marketing development
1 History of the development of marketing abroad
2 History of marketing development in Russia
2.3 Current state of marketing in Russia
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
marketing history development
Marketing is, first of all, an entrepreneurial activity related to the promotion of goods and services from the producer to the consumer. Modern experts in the field of economics consider it in a broader sense - as a business philosophy that determines the strategy and tactics of a firm (enterprise) in a competitive environment.
As an economic concept and a special type of entrepreneurial activity, marketing arose at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This was a kind of response to the need to solve the increasingly complex problems of implementation in the conditions of the development of large-scale production and the growing competition of the market. There was a need to master new, more efficient methods of market activity, when the “consumer market” began to replace the “seller's market”.
Our country has switched to a market way of economic development. Among the terms characterizing the market economy, a special place belongs to the word "marketing". In just a few years, it has turned from a “bourgeois stepson” into a prestigious and necessary reality. The widespread use of marketing has given rise to many different definitions of it. But in all definitions, the words “consumer”, “exchange”, “activity” are necessarily present. It is they who form the foundation of marketing, the main formula of which is "Produce what is sold, and not sell what is produced."
Marketing is a diverse activity where psychological, social, moral, financial and economic processes are intertwined.
Marketing is one of the most important types of economic and social activities however, it is very often misunderstood. The purpose of marketing is to improve the quality of goods and services, improve the conditions for their purchase, which in turn will lead to an increase in the standard of living in the country, an increase in the quality of life.
aim term paper is the study of the history of marketing development.
In accordance with the goal, the following tasks were defined:
To study the essence, goals, objectives and functions of marketing;
consider the history of the development of marketing abroad;
consider the history of marketing development in Russia;
To study the current state of marketing in Russia.
The object of research is marketing.
The subject of the research is the history of marketing development.
The information base of the study is a set of special and scientific literature; economic research on the topic; reference and periodic literature on the research topic.
The structure of the course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references.
1. Theoretical foundations of marketing
1 Essence of marketing
The emergence of marketing as a specific management system, a method for solving production and market problems is nothing more than a response of an economic unit to the processes taking place in the world - as a complication of the processes of production and sale of goods, fierce competition, frequent shifts in the nature and structure of the market economy. demand, its market fluctuations.
Marketing is a complex, multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon. This explains the impossibility in one universal definition to give a complete, adequate description of its essence, principles and functions. About 2000 definitions have now been put forward, each of which considers one or another side of marketing or gives an attempt at its complex characteristics.
The word "marketing" is derived from the English "market" - the market and in translation means "market".
According to the United States Institute of Marketing: marketing is a management function that organizes and directs the commercial activities associated with assessing and converting a customer need into an effective demand for a specific product or service in order to achieve the intended profits or other goals set by the firm.
According to the American Marketing Association, marketing is the process of planning and managing the development of products and services, pricing policy, promotion of goods to buyers and sales, so that the variety of goods thus achieved leads to the satisfaction of the needs of both individuals and organizations.
A prominent American marketing scientist Philip Kotler gives the following definition: marketing is a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and requirements through exchange.
According to the definition of the League of German Scientists: marketing is a system of commodity-money relations.
Marketing is a complex of organizational and technical functions of an enterprise related to the sale of goods and services.
Marketing is a system of measures to study the market and actively influence consumer demand.
According to the definition of the Academy of Management of the Russian Federation: marketing is a system of measures for studying the market, managing the production of competitive goods and services and their effective marketing in order to make a profit or other commercial effect.
Modern marketing concept.
Successful activity in the markets requires, on the one hand, an increase in the competitiveness of products based on the achievements of science and technology, and, on the other hand, a systematic improvement in the forms and methods of commercial work. These two interrelated factors ultimately determine the level of economic efficiency of the activity.
In contrast to the previously dominant approach, when the marketing links were tasked with selling already manufactured products, the concept of marketing assumes that economic decisions should be based not so much on production possibilities as on market requirements. Therefore, the management process begins with a thorough analysis of the market, its conjuncture, current and future needs, and the activities of competing firms. On this basis, a marketing program is developed, promising areas of investment and marketing activities are determined. In other words, marketing means the close interaction between the spheres of production and circulation, which contributes to the efficiency of commercial operations.
The essence of marketing lies in the fact that the activities of the company in the market should provide:
1 reliable, reliable and timely information about the market, the structure and dynamics of specific demand, the tastes and preferences of buyers, that is, information about the external conditions for the functioning of the company;
2 the creation of such a product, a range of products that more fully meets the requirements of the market than the products of competitors;
3 the necessary impact on the consumer, on demand, on the market, providing the maximum possible control over the scope of sales.
From the essence of marketing follow the basic principles, which include:
1. Focus on achieving the final practical result of production and marketing activities.
2. Concentration of research, production and marketing efforts on the decisive areas of marketing activity.
The focus of the enterprise is not on the momentary, but on the long-term result of marketing work. This requires special attention to predictive research, the development of market novelty products based on their results, providing highly profitable economic activity.
Application in unity and interconnection of the strategy and tactics of active adaptation to the requirements of potential buyers with simultaneous targeted impact on them.
The principles of marketing are the initial provisions of the enterprise's market activity, which provide for knowledge of the market, adaptation to the market and active influence on it.
The principles of marketing determine the general direction of the goals of the enterprise in the field of marketing.
2 Goals, objectives and functions of marketing
The main thing in marketing is its target orientation and complexity, that is, the fusion of all the individual components of this activity.
The main goal of marketing is to orient production to market requirements, develop an action plan for market research.
From the point of view of consumer-oriented marketing, the goal of marketing can be:
achieving maximum consumption (the goal of marketing is to maximize the levels of production and consumption and, consequently, the welfare of society);
achieving maximum consumer satisfaction (the goal of marketing, according to which marketing helps to increase the degree of consumer satisfaction, and not just increases consumption);
providing the widest possible choice (the goal of marketing, according to which marketing should enable consumers to find a product that fully satisfies their needs and suits their tastes);
maximum high quality of life (the goal of marketing, which is that it provides, along with the quality, quantity and variety of available goods, quality.
Marketing objectives should be:
Achievable;
understandable;
Rankable;
Coordinated with the general goals and objectives of the enterprise;
controlled;
Oriented to certain terms of their achievement;
Providing means of moral and material incentives for their implementation.
Marketing Tasks:
Research, analysis and assessment of the needs of real and potential consumers of the company's products in areas of interest to the company.
Marketing support for the development of new products and services of the company.
Analysis, assessment and forecasting of the state and development of the markets in which the company operates or will operate, including research into the activities of competitors.
Formation of the assortment policy of the company.
Development of the company's pricing policy.
Participation in the formation of the strategy and tactics of the company's market behavior, including the development of pricing policy.
Sales of the company's products and services.
Marketing communications.
Service maintenance.
The organization of marketing in an enterprise involves the use of marketing functions in the interaction of an enterprise with the market.
Marketing functions - a set of activities aimed at ensuring the effective operation of the enterprise (Fig. 1.1).
Rice. 1.1 Marketing Functions
Marketing functions are separate areas of marketing activities. It depends on the specifics of the company's activities which marketing functions are appropriate to apply, and which are not.
2. History of marketing development
1 History of the development of marketing abroad
Most scientists define marketing as a type of human activity that is aimed at meeting emerging needs and requirements through exchange. And although exchange relations arose almost simultaneously with the emergence of mankind, the formation of marketing as a separate science began to occur only after the "great depression" that reigned in the West in 1923-1933. There are other opinions on this matter.
Peter Drucker believed that Japan was the birthplace of marketing. In 1690, the founder of the famous Mitsui family settled in Tokyo and opened the first department store. In this store, Mr. Mitsui pursued a trade policy that was about 250 years ahead of its time. For the first time in the history of trade, the store owner focused on his customers, buying only what was in demand, providing a system of guarantees for the quality of the goods, constantly expanding the range of goods.
In the West, one can talk about marketing only starting from the middle of the nineteenth century. Cyrus McCormick was the first to suggest that marketing should be the central activity of the enterprise, and work with the consumer's own circle - the task of the manager, was Cyrus McCormick. This person is better known as the inventor of the first combine, but it was he who created such marketing areas as pricing, market research, and after-sales service.
As an academic science, marketing originated in America. Marketing courses were first taught at the University of Illinois and Michigan in 1901. Therefore, the birthplace of modern marketing is considered to be the United States.
As far back as the second half of the 18th century, the famous political economist Adam Smith wrote in his work “The Wealth of Society” that the producer has no greater concern than satisfying the needs of consumers.
According to some economists, the time of the formation of marketing refers to the period following the "great depression" that swept the West in 1923-1933, others believe that this is the period of the early 50s of the XX century. But its history is much older.
The emergence of marketing, from the point of view of Peter Drucker, is associated with Japan. According to him, marketing appeared in Japan around 1650, when the first member of the Mitsui family settled in Tokyo and opened a store there that can be called the first department store. There he pursued a policy that by 250 years anticipated what was then carried out by the largest trading firms, namely:
) became a buyer for his consumers, buying in the shop those products and goods that they needed;
) looked for means and sources for their production;
) introduced the principle of an unconditional refund for the returned goods;
) significantly expanded the range of products for customers.
In the West, marketing arose in the middle of the 19th century. Cyrus McCormick was the first to point out that marketing should become a central function of the enterprise, and the creation of a circle of consumers - a special job of a manager, was Cyrus McCormick. And although he is better known as the designer of the first combine, nevertheless, it was he who created such areas of modern marketing as market research and analysis, principles of pricing policy and after-sales service. All this led to the prosperity of his company "International Harvester".
As an academic discipline, marketing first emerged in America. In 1901, a short course in marketing began to be taught at the Universities of Illinois and Michigan. In 1905, V. E. Kreuz taught the course "Marketing of goods" at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1910, at the University of Wisconsin, R. Butler began to teach a permanent course "Methods of Marketing".
Thus, the United States is considered to be the birthplace of modern marketing. During this period, marketing was linked mainly only with the sale of goods: the main attention was paid to the organization of sales, trade and advertising. However, later the limitations of this interpretation became obvious. The crisis of 1929-1933 also played a significant role in this, after which marketing finally lost its purely sales orientation. World War II acted as a catalyst for the development of heavy industry, which required new principles and approaches to production management. Mass production is developing, which, in the conditions of excess of effective demand over the available supply on the market (“seller's market”), contributed to the implementation of the marketing policy and the accumulation of further experience in this area of marketing.
But, starting from 1948, marketing began to be considered as the implementation of other types of economic activity that directs the flow of goods and services from the producer to the final or intermediate consumer.
As a system, marketing was created under the influence of the development of monopolies, which required a larger and deeper market research and a better organization of firms in the market. At the same time, its organizational design took place. In 1908, the first commercial marketing organization was created, in many of the largest firms at that time marketing research departments began to be created (1911 - Curtis Publishing, Y.S. Rubber, Swift and Company, etc.) . The creation of these organizations and their activities marked the beginning of scientific publications on marketing, in which attempts were made to form the foundations of marketing as an art of sales management.
In 1926, the National Association of Marketing and Advertising Educators was organized in the United States, on the basis of which the American Society of Marketing was subsequently created, renamed in 1973 into the American Marketing Association (AMA), which today unites about 23 thousand teachers, researchers and representatives of the business world. Somewhat later, similar associations and organizations appeared in Western Europe and Japan. International organizations began to emerge - the European Society for the Study of Marketing and Public Opinion (ESOMAR), the European Academy of Marketing, the International Marketing Federation (IMF). The status of international have essentially:
American Marketing Association (AMA);
UK Marketing Institute;
Indian Institute of Marketing and Management, etc.
Since the late 80s - early 90s, there has been a process of globalization of marketing. So, in 1992 in Canber (Australia) an international conference on global marketing was held, which proclaimed: "Marketing is everything."
The term "marketing" originated in the United States at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and as the leading function of management, marketing began to be considered from the 50s.
Scientific and technological progress has had a great influence on the formation of the concept of marketing, providing a huge variety of goods, high rates of their renewal, and effective management of production and marketing.
2 History of marketing development in Russia
There are several periods in the development Russian marketing. The first period can be designated as the time interval 1880-1917. At that time there was a rapid development of the industrial potential of Russia on the basis of entrepreneurship. In the practice of Russian entrepreneurship of this period, many elements of marketing were used. In particular, Russian entrepreneurs widely used print and wall advertising, some elements of Public Relations. For example, many industrial exhibitions and fairs were held in Russia (the famous Nizhny Novgorod fair functioned, which determined European prices for a number of goods, for example, grain). Russian entrepreneurs participated in international exhibitions, in particular, the Paris exhibitions, winning prizes. In Russia patronage of entrepreneurs was widely practiced in relation to the social sphere (hospitals, orphanages, etc.), cultural institutions. Russian entrepreneurs pursued a flexible pricing policy and used various elements of sales promotion. In Russia, the industry for the production of packaging products was developed.
However, there was no complete marketing system in Russia. Separate problems of marketing are considered within the framework of other economic disciplines. If in Michigan, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania universities in the USA at the beginning of the twentieth century there was a course "Marketing Methods", then there was no such course at Russian universities. Separate elements of marketing were taught in commercial schools.
The development of the theory and practice of marketing in Russia was almost completely interrupted in 1917. For five years, there was a shortage of almost all goods in the country, and a significant part of industrial capacity was destroyed. It was connected with the First World War, two revolutions of 1917, the civil war. During these years, a rigid distribution system of “war communism” existed in the country.
The third period in the development of Russian marketing lasted from 1922 to 1928. It was associated with the NEP (new economic policy) introduced by V.I. Lenin. In Russia, entrepreneurship began to develop again, which needed the use of marketing. In practical economic activity marketing elements were quickly restored. In practical economic activity, elements of marketing that had taken place before the 1917 revolution were quickly restored. There were several scientific organizations dealing with marketing problems, in particular the Market Institute in Moscow. A certain theoretical achievement was the development of N.D. Kondratiev's theory of "Business cycles" ("long technological waves in the economy"). This result was developed in the works of J. Schumpeter and made an important contribution to the innovative section of marketing. Resumed teaching elements of marketing in commercial schools.
Since 1929, the development of marketing in Soviet Russia again comes a long break. A rigid command and distribution system is being introduced in the country, and a general shortage of goods accompanying it appears. There is no place for marketing in these conditions. The period during which even the word marketing itself was forgotten lasted until the end of the 50s.
With the beginning of the so-called “Khrushchev thaw”, practical marketing in Russia did not revive, but still a new moment appeared. Marketing was remembered by Soviet economists. The object of their study was the theory and practice of marketing with a developed market economy. Publications with an analysis of this experience appeared in the Soviet press. Almost one hundred percent of these publications gave an unambiguously negative assessment of the theory and practice of marketing. In publications, marketing was interpreted as a means of increasing the exploitation of workers, a way of exchanging consumers.
A new stage in the development of Russian marketing began in the late 60s and early 70s and is associated with the so-called "détente of international tension." During this period, the Soviet economy needed the active development of international economic relations for the sale of its products (primarily raw materials and energy consumers) and the purchase of consumer goods and food. The ignorance of the basics of marketing by foreign trade workers in Soviet Russia led to unfortunate failures in foreign trade. This prompted the top leadership of the country to start training domestic specialists who are proficient in marketing, to conduct their own scientific research in this area. But it should be noted that they began to train specialists only in international marketing. Domestic marketing specialists began to be trained first abroad, then in Russia. In the country, marketers were trained by the Moscow State Institute of International Relations, the Institute of Asian and African Countries at Moscow State University, as well as in the commercial schools of the Academy of the National Economy under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the All-Union Academy of Foreign Trade (VAVT) of the USSR Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations. Every year, the state system trained 200-300 marketing specialists. Some specialized publications on international marketing have appeared. For example, Bulletin of Foreign Commercial Information. In practice, there was a copying of the experience of countries with developed market economies in the foreign trade activities of Soviet organizations and enterprises. To develop the theory of marketing, several state scientific organizations have been created. For example, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute (VNII) of market conditions and demand.
With the beginning of the reforms, M.S. Gorbachev in 1985-1986, a new stage in the development of Russian marketing begins. First of all, activities in the field of international marketing have intensified. In 1987, as part of the All-Union Association "Soyuzpatent" of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry (CCI) of the USSR, a consulting center was created to provide Soviet enterprises with qualified marketing services. The all-Union association Soyuzexpertiza, which maintains intensive contacts with such control and certification companies as the Swiss Societe Generale de Surveillance and the Inspectorate, the American inspection company Kamibrad, the English Control Union "and a number of others.
Intermediary firms and commercial companies emerged with the share capital of Soviet organizations providing marketing services for the export of various, standard engineering products (cars, electric motors, tractors, etc.). These are companies such as Skaldia-Volga in Belgium, Active-Avto and Stanko-France in France, Stan Italiana in Italy, Conela and Coneysto in Finland. On the basis of the All-Union Association "Vneshtorgreklama" of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the USSR, the All-Union Center for the provision of a range of advertising services was created. The practice of creating joint advertising enterprises such as the Soviet-Hungarian "Tysa" organized in 1988 has expanded. A marketing section has been organized at the USSR Chamber of Commerce and Industry, with more than 300 members. The task of the section included the study and promotion of positive foreign experience in marketing activities, the organization of various seminars, conferences, symposiums.
If enterprises engaged in the production of goods for the foreign market were forced to engage in marketing, then enterprises oriented to the domestic market in marketing needed little. In 1988, the All-Russian Research Institute of Market Research and Demand conducted a survey that showed that 80% of the surveyed industrial enterprises did not study the market at all. Only 7% hold individual events no more than once every three years (mainly in the field of advertising, branded trade, new products, etc.). Of the businesses that did not engage in market research at all, 75% cited lack of interest as the main reason. Of these enterprises, 83% were firmly convinced that the study of the market and demand is the task of only trade.
The economic situation that really developed at that time in Soviet Russia did not contribute to the development of marketing. Here is some data for 1989. During this period, the growth of the wage fund was more than five times higher than the growth of the national income. Monetary incomes of the population increased by 12.9% compared to 1988, which in terms of growth rates is 1.4 times faster than the growth in the production of goods and services (9.1%). The current unsatisfied demand in 1989 was estimated by specialists in the range from 45 to 60 billion rubles, and the accumulated demand (that is, including that deferred in previous years) was estimated by the USSR State Statistics Committee at 165 billion rubles, respectively. The deposits of the population in the institutions of the Savings Bank reached 337.7 billion rubles. Inflation data, based on recording prices for 650 major commodities, taking into account deferred demand, indicated that inflation was characterized by a figure of 7.5%. This data shows that there is a huge shortage of goods, and shortage is the number one enemy of marketing.
In turn, the cause of the shortage of goods is monopoly in production. In the economy of Soviet Russia at that time there was a monopoly of two levels: the monopoly of ministries and the monopoly of direct producers. Let us present some data on the degree of monopolization of the Russian economy.
In 1989, about a hundred ministries of federal significance controlled 57% of industrial output; over 800 union-republican ministries and departments dictated their terms in the production, delivery and sale on the market of 3% of industrial goods. Another 6% of products were produced and distributed at the direction of local economic authorities. Thus, there were no freely produced products on the market of Soviet Russia.
A similar picture of super-monopoly took place among direct producers. According to the State Statistics Committee, 4294 research and production associations in industry, which included 7868 enterprises (or 17% of their total number in industry), created more than 50% of products; at the same time, almost 55% of the industrial and production personnel are concentrated on them.
In world practice, a concentration of 30% of the market in one hand is considered a monopoly. In Soviet Russia, cases are not uncommon when one single enterprise "holds" 100% of the market. Thus, the Azovmash Production Association is the only manufacturer of railway tanks and steel-smelting converters, and the May 1 Machine-Building Plant (Kirov Region) is the only manufacturer of railway cranes. The industries that produce the means of production are the most monopolized. This inevitably leads to an increase in prices by an amount greater than the average for the economy.
However, against the backdrop of this generally unfavorable situation for marketing in the late 80s, there were some positive aspects. These positive moments are associated, first of all, with a decrease in the influence of the state on the economy, providing greater independence to enterprises. This independence, together with objective financial difficulties, makes enterprises refuse to buy the products of monopoly enterprises and look for alternatives. The possibilities of the alternative consisted in the emergence of cooperatives, small enterprises, the purchase of hard currency for rubles (with the subsequent acquisition of the necessary goods abroad). A typical example in this respect is the work of the authors on market research in 1990 in St. Petersburg.
The problem faced by the organization that commissioned the research, the International Joint-Stock Association "Scientific Instruments", was a significant decrease in demand for its products.
This organization (firm) was a monopolist in its area earlier. The analysis showed that until 1988 the number of applications for the company's products steadily exceeded the volume of output by 1.5 - 2 times. From the marked date, a sharp drop in the number of applications begins, and since 1990, refusals from previously made purchase applications have begun. The marketing problem was explained as follows.
Until 1988, scientific organizations, which are the main clients of the company, had funds in their budget that were allocated to them from state resources or included in the estimates under private contracts for the purpose of scientific equipment and which they could spend on something else. With the transfer of organizations to the scientific conditions of management (1988), other possibilities for spending funds appeared, which immediately affected the number of applications for scientific equipment.
With the beginning of the transition to the market, the reduction and liquidation of a number of state sources of funding for science, the financial situation of many scientific organizations became simply critical, which caused the rejection of previously made applications.
Difficulties with sales forced the company to engage in market research and marketing of its products.
